By: Meadow Lavoie
Director of Research & Communications & Co-Founder
South Sudan is the newest nation in the world, gaining independence July 9th, 2011 (Sikainga 2011). Sudan, pre‑independence of South Sudan, was the biggest country in Africa (Al‑Shahi 1999). The Nuba mountain region is located in what was the middle of Sudan. The region acted as a cultural divide between civilians in the North and South of the country throughout the colonial period and Arab expansion (Collins 1999). The differences in culture that developed along with other outcomes of colonialism caused Sudan’s history to become marked with civil war (Spaulding 1999). The first Sudanese civil war began in 1955 and continued into 1972 and the second civil war started in 1983 and spanned onward until 2005 when South Sudan became a temporary autonomous region (Sikainga 2011). The referendum for independence was voted on and passed making South Sudan an independent nation six years later (Sikainga 2011). In the 15 years since gaining independence South Sudan has faced two more civil wars and is still experiencing political unrest, violence and famine (Center for Preventive Action 2026a). Tribal disputes remain a key issue within the country. However, a unifying truth regardless of tribe is the pride for the nation of South Sudan and a resilience against arabization and black erasure (Seri‑Hersch 2020).
A History of Sudan Pre-Independence
The North of Sudan over time through cultural migration and trade with Arabs shifted to Islam from their previous Christian and tribal faiths (Collins 1999). The North also eventually adopted the Arabic language as well as many Arab traditions and ways of life (Collins 1999). The South of Sudan however was primarily composed of Christians and pre‑19th century non‑Arabic speakers (Sikainga 2011). In 1898 the British empire in conjunction with Egypt defeated Mahdists army of Sudan and effectively gained control over Sudan (Al‑Shahi 1999).
What followed was a deliberate effort by the Anglo‑Egyptians to further separate the North and South culturally (Seri‑Hersch 2020). The British “[concentrated] the government’s limited financial resources in the North, which was perceived as more ‘civilized’ than the South… Arabic was selected as the main administrative language in Northern Sudan, English was preferred for the South” (Seri‑Hersch 2020).
Juba Arabic is a pidgin‑creole Arabic used by many South Sudanese including non‑Muslims (Seri‑Hersch 2020). Though Arabic had spread minimally through natural migration between North and South Sudan up until the 19th century, it became a lingua franca in the 20th century (Seri‑Hersch 2020). Juba Arabic even became the ‘mother tongue’ of a portion of the population within Juba (Seri‑Hersch 2020). In 1946 the Anglo‑Egyptian condominium was breaking in on itself and there was a scramble for control over the whole of Sudan (Al‑Shahi 1999).
Sudan’s Independence and First Civil War
The British’s solution was to reunite the two halves of Sudan culturally by “Northernising” the South (Collins 1999). In 1948 the unification of Sudan’s school systems began and Arabic was standardized as a language within the South (Seri‑Hersch 2020). The Sudanese army consisting of majority North Sudanese men began taking post in the South (Sikainga 2011). Similarly a majority of legislative positions were taken up by North Sudanese individuals (Sikainga 2011).
On August 18th, 1955, a protest broke out in Torit (Sikainga 2011). Southern soldiers were replaced by northerners, leading to rebellion and the deaths of 336 Northern soldiers and civilians (Sikainga 2011). The outcome was a guerilla war that continued for 16 years (Sikainga 2011). Over 500,000 lives were taken over the 12 years the civil war continued (Sikainga 2011).
The Anyanya guerilla fighters formed the South Sudan Liberation Movement, backed by the U.S., Uganda, and Ethiopia (Sikainga 2011). The Addis Ababa Agreement of 1972 granted autonomy to the South and promised a referendum for Abyei (Sikainga 2011), though it has been continuously delayed (Center for Preventive Action 2026b).
The Second Sudanese Civil War
The second civil war began after oil was discovered in Southern Sudan in 1978 (Collins 1999). The North broke the Addis Ababa Agreement by attempting to seize the oil‑rich land (Center for Preventive Action 2026). Khartoum was increasingly controlled by Islamic extremists, and Sudan was declared an Islamic state (Collins 1999).
Mutiny followed with the founding of the Sudan People’s Liberation Army (Sikainga 2011). War continued until a 1989 coup brought Omar al‑Bashir to power (Spaulding 1999). Bashir’s militias massacred civilians and created a man‑made famine (World Food Program USA 2025).
Over 2 million people died throughout the second civil war (UN News 2025). The U.S. passed the Sudan Peace Act declaring the North’s crimes a genocide (Operation Broken Silence n.d.). The Comprehensive Peace Agreement of 2005 ended the war and granted six years of autonomy (Center for Preventive Action 2026a). The 2011 referendum passed with 99% voting for independence (Sikainga 2011).
Independent South Sudan
South Sudan became an independent republic under President Salva Kiir (Sikainga 2011). Riek Machar served as Vice President (Sikainga 2011). The SPLM attempted to unify Dinka and Nuer representation (Sikainga 2011). This structure lasted until 2013 when Kiir fired Machar, triggering the first civil war of the new nation (Center for Preventive Action 2026a).
The 2013 South Sudanese Civil War
Machar founded the SPLM‑IO (Center for Preventive Action 2026a). The SPLM split along tribal lines: SPLM (Dinka) and SPLM‑IO (Nuer) (Center for Preventive Action 2026a). Over 300,000 people were killed between 2013–2018 (Global Centre for the Responsibility to Protect 2026).
The Revitalized Agreement was signed in 2018 (International Crisis Group 2026), though implementation delays pushed the official end of the war to 2020 (International Crisis Group 2026).
South Sudan Since 2020
Violence continues despite no official war (Human Rights Watch 2025). Famine persists due to environmental causes and government obstruction (World Food Program USA 2025). The 2023 Sudan war created a new refugee crisis (UN News 2025). Severe flooding in 2024 pushed most of the population into stage 2 and stage 3 famine (UN News 2026).
The South Sudan People’s Defense Forces is the official military (Center for Preventive Action 2026a). The Nuer White Army remains active in Upper Nile (Center for Preventive Action 2026a). Elections have been postponed to December 2026 (Center for Preventive Action 2026a). UN investigators warn of risk of renewed civil war (UN News 2025).
Celebrating South Sudan In 2026
Where there is uncertainty, there is also hope. The South Sudanese people have overcome great struggle and silencing from both the current government and their previous nation of Sudan (Global Centre for the Responsibility to Protect 2026). As we celebrate independence, we must remember independence alone isn’t enough. We must oversee safety, food, clean water, accessible health care, and equity between tribes (World Food Program USA 2025).
Works Cited
Al‑Shahi, A. S. “Sudan.” Encyclopedia Britannica, 26 July 1999.
Center for Preventive Action. “Instability in South Sudan.” Council on Foreign Relations, 12 June 2026.
Collins, R. O. “Sudan.” Encyclopedia Britannica, 26 July 1999.
Global Centre for the Responsibility to Protect. “South Sudan.” 15 July 2026.
Human Rights Watch. “South Sudan: Incendiary Bombs Kill, Burn Civilians.” 10 Apr. 2025.
International Crisis Group. “Halting South Sudan’s Slide to War.” 25 Mar. 2026.
Operation Broken Silence. “Our Work.” Accessed 20 July 2026.
Seri‑Hersch, Iris. “Arabization and Islamization in the Making of the Sudanese ‘Postcolonial’ State (1946–1964).” OpenEdition Journals, 2020.
Sikainga, Ahmad A. “South Sudan.” Encyclopedia Britannica, 28 June 2011.
Spaulding, Jay L. “Sudan.” Encyclopedia Britannica, 26 July 1999.
UN News. “Hospital Bombing Deepens Bleak Situation for War‑Weary South Sudanese.” 6 May 2025.
UN News. “South Sudan at Risk of Return to War, UN Investigators Warn.” 29 Oct. 2025.
UN News. “Over Half of South Sudan’s Population Faces Acute Hunger Crisis.” 28 Apr. 2026.
World Food Program USA. “South Sudan Hunger Crisis & Humanitarian Aid.” 22 Apr. 2025.